The author
John Polidori (1795 - 1821) was an English writer and physician, born
in Westminster, London. The son of an Italian émigré writer and governess, he
was educated in Yorkshire. He studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh,
where he wrote his thesis on somnambulism (sleepwalking) and nightmares.
Dr. Polidori was employed as Lord Byron’s personal
physician and secretary in April 1816, at the start of Byron’s voluntary self-exile
from England. The supernatural ghost-story competition at Villa Diodati in
Geneva took place early in his employment in the summer of 1816. After five
stormy months, Polidori and Byron parted company. After returning to England, his
life was marked by professional frustration, financial difficulties and
personal unhappiness. He died at his father’s house in London in 1821 from a
self-administered dose of prussic acid (cyanide).
It is understood that Polidori’s The Vampyre – A
Tale, was in fact an expansion of an unfinished story and Fragment of a
Novel written during the same ghost-story challenge by Byron himself.
Arguably, Polidori took Byron’s idea and infused it with his master’s persona
to reflect the friction that existed between them. The tale serves as an act of
flattery and revenge and captures the author’s complex relationship with the
poet.
Byron was known for his lack of patience with
people who could not keep up with him! In some respects, Polidori may be seen
as a long-suffering physician, failing to manage expectations of his ability to
meet the needs of Byron’s physical and mental health.
The Evolution of Vampires
In 1819, The Vampyre – A Tale was published;
initially and erroneously attributed to Byron. Both affirmed the author to
be John Polidori. The novella is considered the first modern vampire story in
English literature.
Legends of vampires existed for millennia. Tales of
‘the undead’ consuming the blood or flesh of living beings have been found in
most cultures around the world for many centuries. In ancient times blood
drinking was attributed to demons or spirits.
The folklore for the entity known today as ‘the vampire’
originated from early 18th century Europe - notably Transylvania.
During this period, there was a frenzy of vampire sightings, resulting in mass
hysteria and even public executions of people believed to be vampires.
Vampires were seen as grotesque, monstrous corpses. In
his Philosophical Dictionary published in 1764, Voltaire wrote that -
“These vampires were corpses, who went out of their graves at night to suck the blood of the living, either at their throats or stomachs, after which they returned to their cemeteries. The persons so sucked waned, grew pale, and fell into consumption; while the sucking corpse grew fat, got rosy, and enjoyed excellent appetite. It was in Poland, Hungary, Silesia, Moravia, Austria, and Lorraine, that the dead made this good cheer.”
Romanian vampires were said to bite their victims over the heart or between the eyes. In essence the traditions about beings with vampire tendencies and vampire-like monsters varied across Europe. Some of the legends would have given rise to European folklore which quickly spread through S.E. Europe – and later entered Germany and England. The core characteristics, however, remained the same – the need to feed on the vital essence, typically blood, for survival or to maintain their immortality.
On the night before the supernatural competition at Villa Diodati, Polidori and his fellow competitors were reading and discussing the French collection of German ghost stories called Fantasmagoriana.
The Vampyre
His tale of a vampire follows a young wealthy Englishman named Aubrey and his
relationship with the charismatic but dangerous nobleman, Lord Ruthven. Aubrey
decides to join Lord Ruthven on a Grand Tour of Europe – with terrifying
consequences.
The Meeting
Aubrey meets the mysterious and captivating Lord
Ruthven, within London society. Ruthven has an unnerving and pale appearance and
a cold, emotionless, enigmatic demeanour. He is known for his sinister
reputation and ambiguous past.
The Travelog
As they travel along, Aubrey starts to notice strange
and disturbing things about Ruthven’s behaviour. He seems to delight in
seducing and abandoning women – and appears to be linked to the ruin and death
of several young women in high society that they meet along the way.
Aubrey successfully prevents Ruthven from completing an attack on a young Italian girl. He decides to part company in Rome and travels alone to Greece. Aubrey falls in love with Ianthe, a beautiful Greek girl. She tells him about the Greek legends of blood-sucking vampires. Ianthe is found dead with her throat brutally wounded – believed by locals, to be the result of an attack by a vampire. Aubrey is convinced that Lord Ruthven was involved.
The Fatal Attack and the Oath
Aubrey and Ruthven travel together again and are attacked by bandits. Ruthven is mortally wounded. As he lies dying, he makes Aubrey swear a solemn vow – that he will not reveal Ruthven’s death or any of his misdeeds for a year and a day. Aubrey agrees and Ruthven dies with a ‘ghastly smile’ on his face. He is buried up in the mountains.
The Return to London
Aubrey returns to London suffering from severe mental distress and haunted by the oath. He is shocked to find that Lord Ruthven has reappeared in London society – completely alive and well. Ruthven reminds Aubrey of his oath, leaving the young man powerless. Aubrey’s mental state deteriorates further, and he is deemed insane by his guardians and physician.
The Climax and the Aftermath
Aubrey discovers that Lord Ruthven has been courting
his sister and that a wedding is about to take place on the very day that his
vow of silence expires. He writes a letter to his sister’s guardians begging
them to stop the wedding. The letter arrives too late. Aubrey suffers a mental
breakdown and collapses.
On the day of the wedding, Aubrey dies from a burst blood vessel in the brain – freed from his oath, but too late to prevent the marriage. The letter of warning is discovered, but by then Ruthven and his sister have vanished. On their wedding night, Lord Ruthven murders Aubrey’s sister by draining her blood. He then disappears without trace, having glutted ‘the thirst of a vampyre’.
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Lord Ruthven (NightCafe Creator AI)
The character is widely considered to be a veiled caricature of Lord Byron.
Reflection on John Polidori’s knowledge of Lord Byron
John Polidori was a long-suffering physician trying, and largely failing, to manage Lord Byron’s health. He was Byron’s personal physician for only a short period of time. During that period however, Polidori spent a significant amount of time with his master, observing his personality, habits and the rumours surrounding his life. There are several ways in which The Vampyre Tale may have reflected Polidori’s knowledge and understanding of the poet.
- the name ‘Ruthven’ is taken from Lady Caroline Lamb’s novel – Glenarvon. Her character ‘Clarence de Ruthven’ was a caricature of Lord Byron. Polidori explicitly used the name to make the connection obvious.
- the vampyre embodies some of the traits of the Byronic Hero - charismatic, mysterious and brooding; moody, cynical and emotionally tormented - but with a sinister twist. Lord Ruthven’s characteristics are a cover for a truly evil destructive mindset and not a hero suffering with inner turmoil
- the physical appearance of the vampire is notably pale. Byron cultivated this paleness as a part of his dramatic image
- attempts were made by Byron’s wife Annabella Milbanke (and her family) to prove Byron to be "Mad’ - and therefore, potentially "dangerous to know"
The personality and demeanor of Lord Ruthven can be seen to capture elements of Lord Byron’s reputation in England -
- charismatic and attractive to women
- numerous often scandalous and sometimes immoral affairs, and the emotional destruction left in his wake
The vow of silence may be seen to mirror the relationship between Polidori and Byron during their travels, leaving the former feeling belittled or silenced by Byron’s controlling dominance.
The Literary Legacy
In terms of immediate popularity and impact at the time of publishing, Polidori’s novella achieved a more instantaneous sensation than Frankenstein. Its immediate popularity led to numerous editions and launched a European ‘vampire craze’. In part this was due to its initial misattribution to Lord Byron, which boosted its sales and notoriety. Both writers later confirmed that John Polidori was the true author of The Vampyre.
The Vampyre is widely considered to be the first modern vampire story in English prose and a template for vampire literature, film, television to this day – whether a straight horror tale or a tragic romance. It established the vampire as a popular gothic figure, transformed from a folkloric monster into the sophisticated, aristocratic villain we recognize today.
Polidori’s novella is primarily remembered for its historical role in the development of the vampire genre.
John Polidori was the first to present a vampire as a nobleman, moving in high society – a model that directly influenced Bram Stoker’s Count Dracula. In Dracula, published in 1897, the author developed his own comprehensive set of rules such as the ability to shapeshift bats and wolves. The ‘invitation rule’ was famously established as a key piece of vampire lore by Bram Stoker. He initially referred to his up-and-coming novel as ‘The Un-Dead’. ‘Dracula’ was a last-minute change following his research which identified that, in the Wallachian language, ‘Dracula’ meant ‘Devil.’ The Count is a handsome, mysterious and calculating figure who uses his charm and hypnotic abilities to gain the trust of his victims - establishing the vampire as a sexual and social predator.
The modern vampire has evolved from a simple horror
monster into a diverse and flexible archetype that reflects contemporary cultural
anxieties, desires and social issues ranging from hyper-violent killers to
introspective, sympathetic protagonists. Vampires are typically depicted as
charismatic, powerful and often beautiful anti-heroes or tragic, isolated
figures grappling with identity and a predatory nature. Pale and gaunt but
highly attractive and seductive, they sometimes appear androgynous. While some
are still technically ‘undead’, others portray a separate supernaturally
altered living species or human-demon hybrid. Vampires commonly have superhuman
strength, speed and enhanced healing capabilities. Many continue to shape-shift
into animals like bats or wolves.
