Byron is classified as a Pragmatic Philhellene. The title is derived from the words Philos (friend/lover) and Hellen (a Greek). His own political concepts were related to liberalism and a constitutional Greek government. Byron’s approach was markedly more pragmatic and politically realistic than that of many of the ‘classical’ Philhellenes of the era who were driven by a romantic, idealised vision of Ancient Greece. The 19th century German Druden dictionary definition of Philhellenism was -
‘A political-romantic movement, which supported the liberation struggle of the Greeks against the Turks.’
“We are all Greeks. Our laws, our literature, our religion, our art have their roots in Greece. But for Greece, we might still have been savages and idolaters… The modern Greek is the descendant of those glorious beings whom the imagination almost refuses to figure to itself as belonging to our kind, and he inherits much of their sensibility, their rapidity of conception, and their courage.” (Preface to Shelley’s poem Hellas - dedicated to Prince Alexander Mavrocordatos)
Support for The Cause varied in intensity and participation across Europe. Some volunteered to go and fight in Greece while others were actively operating in their own country to lend moral and material assistance.
Byron recognised the Greeks as they were at the outbreak of war – affected by centuries of occupation. He focused upon the practical necessities – mediating between the rival Greek leaders, securing international loans and maintaining military stability. He acted as a critical channel of communication between the Greek revolutionaries and the London Philhellenic Committee, recognising that only formal Western financial and political support would ensure long term success.
His on-the-ground actions in Missolonghi in 1824 were those of a practical statesman trying to unify a fractured revolution.
“I came here to join a nation not a faction”
The Early Stages of The Greek War (1814 – 1824)
For three and a half centuries, Greece had been ruled by the Turks. It was a part of the Ottoman Empire under the Sultan of Constantinople. The Greek revolutionary secret society - the Philiki Etaireia (Friendly Brotherhood) had been formed by merchants in Odessa (Ukraine) in 1814. They were mostly Phanariot Greeks from Russia, local chieftains from Greece and Serbs. They played a vital role in the initial uprising which led to the Greek War of Independence. Their motto proved to be one of the most famous sayings of the revolution - ‘Freedom or Death.’
Byron wrote the famous stanzas known as The Isles of Greece as part of Don Juan Canto III. It was published in 1821 coinciding with the start of the Greek Revolution which gave it particular significance as a philhellenic anthem.
The isles of Greece, the isles of Greece!
Where burning Sappho loved and sung,
Where grew the arts of war and peace,
Where Delos rose and Phoebus sprung!
Eternal summer gilds them yet,
But all, except their sun is set…
The mountains look on Marathon -
And Marathon looks on the sea -
And musing there an hour alone,
I dream’d that Greece might yet be free;
For, standing on the Persians’ grave
I could not deem myself a slave.
1821
Prince Alexandros Ypsilantis, a prince and high-ranking officer in the Imperial Russian cavalry, had been made Leader of the Philiki Etaireia in 1820. He declared a revolt against the Ottoman Empire and raised the first flag on February 24th in Moldavia. Bishop Germanos of Patras proclaimed the Greek national uprising and raised the revolutionary flag outside the Monastery of Agia Lavra on March 25th.
The fall of the fortress of Monemvasia was an early success for the Greek forces. The fortress was besieged by land and sea and after four months it was surrendered to the Greeks. Navarino and Tripolitsa were next to fall. The Battle of Alamana in April however, was a military defeat for the Greeks. The heroic martyrdom of the Greek leader Athanasios Diakos raised awareness and sympathy for the Greek Cause. The Battle of Dragasani in Wallachia saw the destruction of the forces of the Philiki Etaireia by the forces of Sultan Mahmud II.
1822
The Greek Constitution of 1822 was adopted by the First National Assembly at Epidaurus. It attempted to achieve a temporary Hellenic government and military organisation until a National Government could be formed. Alexandros Mavrokordatos took office as President of the Executive.
The massacre on the island of Chios by Ottoman troops in March resulted in the deaths of tens of thousands of Greeks.
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| The Massacre at Chios by Eugene Delacroix (Wikimedia Commons) |
The Ottoman forces slaughtered, looted, took prisoners and decimated the island’s population. This massacre of Christians provoked international outrage and led to increased support for the Greek Cause.
The battle of Peta in Arta, was fought by Alexandros Mavrokordatos and Markos Botsaris against Ottoman forces led by Omer Vrioni. The betrayal by Georgios Bakolas contributed to the defeat of Greek forces. This seriously impacted upon Mavrokordatos’ status as a leader.
The first siege of Missolonghi saw the Ottoman forces attempt to capture the port town. Missolonghi had gained importance during the war due to its strategic position. At the start of the war, the Greeks had taken possession of the city and fortified it. In 1822 it was besieged by Ottoman forces without success.
The battle of Nauplia saw a series of naval engagements between the Greek and Ottoman fleets. Frank Abney Hastings had distinguished himself while in charge of the island fort. This experience convinced him of the need to reform the fleet to make it a more effective force against the Turks. He was a British naval officer and Philhellene who had served in the Royal Navy and travelled to Greece to aid the Greeks.
The destruction of the Ottoman Army at Dervenakia in August proved to be a decisive Greek victory. The destruction of Dramali Pasha’s forces saved the Morea - the heartland of the rebellion.
During this time, many Europeans arrived in Greece to fight. Others were involved in war operations and raising funds. Philhellenic Societies sprang up first in Germany, France and Switzerland.
Byron Resident in Italy 1823
Byron had moved to Casa Saluzzo (palace) in Genoa along with Teresa Guiccioli and her brother, Pietro Gamba. Byron was at the peak of his fame yet felt unfulfilled and yearned for revolutionary action. He started to think seriously about supporting the Greek Cause.
“In short - the longer I live - the more I perceive that money (honestly come by) is the Philosopher’s stone… I want to get a sum together to go amongst the Greeks … and do some good.”
“Opposition and the prospect of the greatest dangers were to him the most alluring excitements.” (Pietro Gamba’s Journal)
Having identified the opportunity to help with the war, Byron’s interests moved away from poetry.
“With his usual love for mystification he had decided in his own mind to join their cause. In Byron there were, as I have said, two natures – the man and the poet were different entities.” (Thomas Medwin - writer and poet)
In March 1823, the London Greek Committee was formed by John Bowering and Edward Blaquiere. It aimed to support the Greek War by raising funds for military supplies and loans to stabilise a fledgling Greek government. Blaquiere is credited with the success of recruiting Byron to the cause. He met Byron in Genoa, whilst en route to Greece, and persuaded him that his assistance was vital. Byron had a lot of pertinent issues to consider -
- his 'circle of friends' in Pisa had broken up after Shelley’s death
- he was disillusioned with the Italian Carbonari (secret revolutionary society) and somewhat bored of his life in Genoa
- his genuine passion for Teresa had faded somewhat and it would not be safe to take her to a war zone
- he was ageing prematurely
- there was a need to reinvent himself and find a new source of adventure - and fame
Then everything started to fall into place –
- travelling to Greece on behalf of the London Greek Committee would be an exciting new adventure - he might even be able to go into battle and fight
- Teresa was prepared (albeit reluctantly) to return to the safety of her father’s home in Ravenna
- he was in a unique position to help based on his aristocratic status and fame - as well as his wealth - resulting from the sale of Newstead Abbey in 1818. The Greek Cause would be a worthy use of his inheritance
“With a certain sum in advance and no particular occupation, how could I better employ my time and money”
Byron estimated that he had £20,000 (approaching £2.5 million) at his disposal - all of which he planned to spend. He wrote to the Committee and expressed his desire to visit Greece in person. He then wrote to his Pisan friend, Edward Trelawny, and asked him to join him.
“I can do nothing without you, and am exceeding anxious to see you… They all say I can be of use to Greece; I do not know how - nor do they; but at all events, let us go.” (Letter to Edward Trelawny)
Byron felt the need to put the capital he had received from the sale of property in England to good use. To this end he sold the Bolivar, his ‘pleasure boat,’ and chartered an English brig - Hercules. He purchased scarlet and gold military uniforms, swords and firearms, and three helmets for Pietro Gamba, Edward Trelawny and himself. Made to Byron’s own specification, the helmet and sword were inspired by the description of Hector’s armour in the Iliad.
They waited for letters of confirmation and instructions until mid-July. When none arrived, Byron went aboard the Hercules, accompanied by Edward Trelawny, Pietro Gamba, Lega Zambelli (secretary) and Francesco Bruno (young Italian doctor). They were accompanied by eight servants including Tita Falcieri (ex-gondolier), William Fletcher (valet) and Benjamin Lewis (Trelawny’s black American servant). The ship carried 10,000 in Spanish dollars and bills of exchange for 40,000 more. In addition, there were chests of medical stores, arms and ammunition to be conveyed to Greece.
In the night, strong westerly winds arose which damaged the Hercules, and they were forced to return to Genoa. Once the damage was repaired, the Hercules set sail for Leghorn (the Italian port city of Livorno) and on to the Ionian Islands. Byron’s spirits were high. He slept on the open deck and enjoyed the sports that he had loved in his youth - pistol shooting, fencing and boxing!
The Hercules anchored at Argostoli, the main port, capital and administrative centre of Cephalonia. Upon their arrival, it was evident that Blaquiere had left Greece to report to the Greek Committee, and there were no letters of introduction to the principal Greek chiefs and the government. Byron’s mission had effectively been placed on hold.
MUSICAL INTERLUDE
Some of you will be aware that since Byron did not sing particularly well - I have had to rely on others, including the ‘King of Rock and Roll’ to speak out on his behalf. Lord Byron is widely referred to as the world’s first modern celebrity and a ‘rock star.’ So here goes –
There must be peace and understanding sometime
Strong winds of promise that will blow away every doubt and fear
If I can dream of a warmer sun
Where hope keeps shining for everyone
Tell me why, oh why, oh why won’t that sun appear
We’re lost in a cloud with too much rain
We’re trapped in a world that’s troubled with pain
But as long as a man has the strength to dream
He can redeem his soul and fly
Deep in my heart, there’s a trembling question
Still I am sure that the answer’s gonna come somehow
Out there in the dark, there’s a beckoning candle
And while I can think, while I can talk
While I can stand, while I can walk,
While I can dream, please let my dream come true …. Right now.
‘If I can Dream’ is an emotional song performed by Elvis Presley (songwriter: Walter Earl Brown) as a powerful tribute to civil rights leaders Martin Luther King Jr. and Robert F. Kennedy following their assassinations in 1968.
Byron resident in Cephalonia (August - December 1823)
During 1822, the Greeks had been relatively successful in their war against the Turks. However, with no Turks to fight, they turned on each other.
“Each faction had its agents, exerting every art to degrade its opponent.” (Pietro Gamba’s Journal)
Byron was not optimistic regarding his own ability to assist in the Greek War of Independence. There were issues concerning his own capabilities and state of health, as well as his observations regarding the social, political and economic differences and divisions amongst the various Greek factions.
“The one I am about to undertake is not the least, though probably, it will be the last; for, with my broken health, and the chances of war, Greece will most likely terminate my mortal career… To engage in a cause, for the successful result of which I have no very sanguine hopes.”
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| The death of Markos Botsaris by Marsigli Filippo (Wikimedia Commons) |
Byron provided financial support for an initial 40 Souliotes. The Battle of Karpenisi in central Greece took place in August. Markos Botsaris led a daring nocturnal attack on the Ottoman camp and was killed in the battle - instantly becoming a martyr and national hero. Byron highly admired Botsaris’s courage and selflessness and later took his brother Kostas and a unit of 50 Souliotes into his pay as a personal bodyguard.
Weeks passed and Byron had not heard from either his friend John Cam Hobhouse or the Greek Committee in London. However, Metropolitan Ignatius, spiritual leader and mentor of Mavrokordatos, seemed to be aware that Lord Byron was already on his way to Greece.
“The nobleman Lord Byron is on his way to see the state of affairs in Greece and to lend a helping hand. He has means. He is a member of the committee established in London in favour of the Greeks; he has important friends and can bring benefit, provided he is pleased and our compatriots can win him over with their good offices towards him.” (Metropolitan Ignatius)
The Greece that Byron was about to encounter differed significantly from the Greece he had seen during his Mediterranean travels. As a result of the wars which had already taken place, Greece now had four independent territories -
- The Peloponnese - controlled by Theodoros Kolokotronis and lesser warlords.
- West of the Mainland - where Alexandros Mavrokordatos was regarded as a leader, based in the capital Missolonghi.
- Central Greece - where commander-in-chief, Odysseas Androutsos, ruled undisputedly from the Acropolis of Athens.
- The Greek Islands - with no obvious leader, but a significant number of ship-owners and sea captains who had transformed the Merchant Navy and were in control of naval routes.
Struggles amongst the Greek leaders and their followers resulted in deep-seated divisions.
“The Greeks were more intent on persecuting and calumniating each other than on securing the independence of their country… There was more to be feared from their own dissensions than from the Turks.” (Pietro Gamba’s Journal 1835)
As far as Byron’s objectives were concerned, there were essentially two key combatants:
Theodoros Kolokotronis
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Theodoros Kolokotronis by Dionysios Tsokos
Chief warlord strongly influenced by the revolutionary ideas of the Napoleonic era.
On the outbreak of war, he had formed a confederation of Moreot klept bands (warriors/ brigands).
Considered a ‘genius’ at guerrilla warfare, Kolokotronis is well remembered as the klept hero and commander-in-chief of the Peloponnese.
Kolokotronis is often considered to be the preeminent leader of the Greek War of Independence. His armaments were largely British because of his service in the Greek volunteer regiment of the British army in Zakynthos and his time as a Major during the Napoleonic Wars.
Prince Alexandros Mavrokordatos
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| Prince Alexandros Mavrokordatos by Adam Friedel |
Chief Moderniser and a wealthy, well-educated Phanariot Greek. He envisaged a modern Greek state with a Western European orientation.
A constitutional nationalist and liberal politician, he was focused upon a strong central government.
He was popular with the European Philhellenes.
Alexandros Mavrokordatos was celebrated for writing Greece’s Declaration of Independence. He was elected President of The First National Assembly in January 1822. Byron had previously met Mavrokordatos in Pisa, at the Shelleys residence, in 1820. To this day he is considered something of an enigmatic leader. While some felt he had a kindly disposition and was cleverer than other leaders, others felt he was cunning and devious. Either way, he was sincere in wanting a constitutional republic and his relationship with Lord Byron was of fundamental importance to the regeneration of a nation.
One wonders if Lord Byron ever met Princess Manto Mavrogenous. If they had met, then surely, we would know more about it!
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| Princess Manto Mavrogenous by Adam Friedel |
Princess Manto Mavrogenous had studied ancient Greek philosophy and history and spoke French, Italian and Turkish fluently.
She had grown up in an educated family, influenced by the Age of Enlightenment.
When the war began, she went to Mykonos and encouraged the leaders to join the revolution.
An extremely wealthy aristocrat, she contributed her fortune to the Hellenic Cause.
Mavrogenous equipped and manned her own ships. For the battle in Karystos in 1822, she had put together a fleet of six ships and infantry. She financed and equipped men to fight in the first siege of Missolonghi and moved to Nafplio in 1823 to be in the centre of the struggle. Under her encouragement, her aristocratic European friends contributed both money and arms.
When the war was over, Ioannis Kapodistrias (Governor of Greece), awarded her the rank of Lieutenant General and granted her a dwelling in Nafplio. Princess Mavrogenous was depicted on the reverse of the Greek 2-drachma coin in 1988-2001.
Byron still stuck in Cephalonia
“As the Committee has not favoured me with any specific instructions... I of course have to suppose that I am left to my own discretion.”
Around this time, Mavrocordatos had been threatened by warlords. He abandoned the Morea, quit public affairs and sought refuge in Hydra. In August, Byron spent eight days in Ithaca (home of Ulysses). It was here that his benevolent feelings toward the victims of war were displayed. Families had fled from Chios, Patras and other parts of Greece. Byron gave the commandant 3,000 piastres for their relief and persuaded a destitute family to return with him to Cephalonia. He employed Loukas Chalandritsanos (c.15 years of age) as his page.
“Induced a family, once rich in Patras, but now reduced to the greatest misery, to pass over to Cephalonia, where he provided them with a house, and assigned them a monthly allowance.” (Pietro Gamba’s Journal)
In his Journal, Gamba claimed that despite the hot weather, Byron enjoyed good health and spirits:
“We had been eight days absent travelling generally from nine in the morning until four or five in the evening… under a most scorching sun. Lord Byron never enjoyed better health or spirits.”
However, toward the end of the holiday, Byron could not be dissuaded from swimming for long periods of time, in the heat of the midday sun. Later in the day, when the party visited a convent, the priests were stunned by his apoplectic rage.
“He gradually lashed himself into one of those ungovernable torrents of rage, to which at times he was liable; the paroxysm increased so as almost to divest him of reason, and I really entertained apprehensions of an apoplectic attack… Snatching a lamp like one possessed, he cried out “my head is burning; will no one relieve me from the presence of this pestilential madman?” (James Hamilton Browne - Narrative of a Visit, in 1823, to the Seat of War in Greece)
In October – Pasha Omer Vrioni of Ioannina and Mustai of Skodra (two leading Ottomans) approached Missolonghi with a sizable army of Albanian Muslims loyal to the Sultan. With the support of a naval blockade of vessels, they laid siege to the town.
“Missolonghi is blockaded by sea and besieged by land; the town is short of provisions and sure to fall to the Turks.” (Mavrokordatos)
Emissaries had been sent to London to ask for funds to activate the fleet. In the meantime, on the sale of the Rochdale estate, Byron agreed a loan to pay the sailors. They sailed from Hydra and Spetses and arrived in Missolonghi in early December. In response, the Turks withdrew both naval and land forces.
Byron took charge of some 50 Souliotes to be his personal bodyguard. The Souliotes were an Orthodox Christian Albanian tribal community from the mountainous region of Northwest Greece.
“They were distinguished amongst the warriors of Roumelia for their courage and experience, and, above all, for their fidelity.” (Pietro Gamba’s Journal)
Byron was appointed ‘principal agent of the Greek Committee.’ He was instructed only to express his intentions of devoting his fortune to their cause (not placing himself at their disposal or committing to anything!).
“I believed myself on a fool’s errand from the outset... I will at least linger on here or there till I see whether I can be of any service in any way.” (Letter to Charles James Napier, Governor of Cephalonia)
Byron was besieged by representatives of the different factions and was aware of their objectives - and the Grecian style of approach.
“You will be received here as a saviour. Be assured, My Lord, that it depends only on yourself to secure the destiny of Greece.” (Letter from Mavrokordatos to Byron)
“These Greeks are excellent flatterers. I do not believe they care one farthing about me personally, though they would be glad to get my money.” (Conversation with James Kennedy)
Byron’s intentions could not have been more transparent:
“I can recognise only the Greek Government - without reference to the persons who compose it… As a foreigner I have nothing to do with factions or private preferences of individuals.”
In May, Alexandros Mavrokordatos was made the national government’s representative and Governor-General of the Missolonghi province in Western Greece. Byron had received a letter from the Legislative body asking him to cooperate with him. Having spent his own money fighting for the Cause, Mavrokordatos identified Lord Byron as a way of achieving his aims and wrote to him directly. Byron was already well disposed toward him, having met him before. Charles James Napier, the governor of Cephalonia, also thought highly of him.
Pietro Gamba had expressed his opinion - that Lord Byron would continue to wait until he was able to identify the right moment and the right beneficiary… Was this the moment?
“Unless union and order are established all hopes of a loan will be vain; and all the assistance which the Greeks could expect from abroad - assistance neither trifling nor worthless - will be suspended or destroyed.” (Pietro Gamba’s Journal)
For the planned attack on Lepanto (modern-day Nafpaktos) in early 1824 Byron agreed to provide the loan to the Greek government for reactivating the fleet and the payment of 500 Souliotes.
Byron boarded the light, fast-sailing Mistico with Francesco Bruno (personal physician), William Fletcher (valet) and Loukas Chalandritsanos (page). A larger vessel, the Bombarda, with Pietro Gamba in charge, conveyed the other servants – such as Giovanni Battista ‘Tita’ Falcieri (gondolier and bodyguard) and Lega Zambelli (steward) - baggage, horses, armaments etc. They sailed to Zante to pick up ‘a considerable amount of money.’
Crossing over to Missolonghi, Byron’s vessel came close to a Turkish frigate and was forced to take refuge at Dragomestri. The Bombarda was captured by the frigate. Luck would have it that the captain recognised Count Gamba as the man who had previously saved his life, as well as that of his brother and other sailors. He persuaded Yusuf Pasha (Commander at Patras) to release the vessel and free those aboard. The fact that Yusuf Pasha had no right in the first place, to detain a vessel carrying a neutral flag and under British protection, had been blatantly ignored.
On the evening of January 4th, 1824, Lord Byron sailed through the Gulf of Patras and into the lagoon at Missolonghi in Greece.
MUSICAL INTERLUDE
As a textbook example of bipolar mood cycling and ADHD-driven hyperfocus – lets move away from ‘the dreamer’ and listen to the words of Michael Ball - ‘Fight the Fight’ from ‘Here to Eternity’!
It’s a long war – And I won’t be walking their line
I won’t fight their fight, but you bet that I’m gonna fight mine
And I won’t fall – For either their truth or their lies
A man’s on his own – Whichever condition applies
A man’s on his own ‘til he dies
I quit the bugle ain’t no big deal – So don’t you tell me how that should feel
Just cut me some slack – Get off of my back
And let me fight that fight
Just show me the underdog – I’m going to be on his side
And this ain’t no war – Well least ways it isn’t so far
We’re looking for love – But only to find who we are
Might as well reach for a star
And yet the hardest man on earth – Knows what a woman’s touch is worth
A man’s on his own – Whatever illusion applies
A man’s on his own ‘til he dies
